ale()
is the central function that manages the creation of ALE data and plots
for one-way ALE. For two-way interactions, see ale_ixn()
. This function calls
ale_core
(a non-exported function) that manages the ALE data and plot creation in detail. For details, see
the introductory vignette for this package or the details and examples below.
Usage
ale(
data,
model,
x_cols = NULL,
y_col = NULL,
...,
parallel = parallel::detectCores(logical = FALSE) - 1,
model_packages = as.character(NA),
output = c("plots", "data", "stats", "conf_regions"),
pred_fun = function(object, newdata, type = pred_type) {
stats::predict(object =
object, newdata = newdata, type = type)
},
pred_type = "response",
p_values = NULL,
p_alpha = c(0.01, 0.05),
x_intervals = 100,
boot_it = 0,
seed = 0,
boot_alpha = 0.05,
boot_centre = "mean",
relative_y = "median",
y_type = NULL,
median_band_pct = c(0.05, 0.5),
rug_sample_size = 500,
min_rug_per_interval = 1,
ale_xs = NULL,
ale_ns = NULL,
compact_plots = FALSE,
silent = FALSE
)
Arguments
- data
dataframe. Dataset from which to create predictions for the ALE.
- model
model object. Model for which ALE should be calculated. May be any kind of R object that can make predictions from data.
- x_cols
character. Vector of column names from
data
for which one-way ALE data is to be calculated (that is, simple ALE without interactions). If not provided, ALE will be created for all columns indata
excepty_col
.- y_col
character length 1. Name of the outcome target label (y) variable. If not provided,
ale()
will try to detect it automatically. For non-standard models,y_col
should be provided. For survival models, sety_col
to the name of the binary event column; in that case,pred_type
should also be specified.- ...
not used. Inserted to require explicit naming of subsequent arguments.
- parallel
non-negative integer length 1. Number of parallel threads (workers or tasks) for parallel execution of the function. See details.
- model_packages
character. Character vector of names of packages that
model
depends on that might not be obvious. The{ale}
package should be able to automatically recognize and load most packages that are needed, but with parallel processing enabled (which is the default), some packages might not be properly loaded. If you get a strange error message that mentions something somewhere about 'future', try adding the package for your model to this vector, especially if you see such errors after the progress bars begin displaying (assuming you did not disable progress bars withsilent = TRUE
).- output
character in c('plots', 'data', 'stats', 'conf_regions'). Vector of types of results to return. 'plots' will return an ALE plot; 'data' will return the source ALE data; 'stats' will return ALE statistics. Each option must be listed to return the specified component. By default, all are returned.
- pred_fun, pred_type
function,character length 1.
pred_fun
is a function that returns a vector of predicted values of typepred_type
frommodel
ondata
. See details.- p_values
instructions for calculating p-values and to determine the median band. If
NULL
(default), no p-values are calculated andmedian_band_pct
is used to determine the median band. To calculate p-values, an object generated by thecreate_p_funs()
function must be provided here. Ifp_values
is set to 'auto', thisale()
function will try to automatically create the p-values function; this only works with standard R model types. Any error message will be given if p-values cannot be generated. Any other input provided to this argument will result in an error. For more details about creating p-values, see documentation forcreate_p_funs()
. Note that p-values will not be generated if 'stats' are not included as an option in theoutput
argument.- p_alpha
numeric length 2 from 0 to 1. Alpha for "confidence interval" ranges for printing bands around the median for single-variable plots. These are the default values used if
p_values
are provided. Ifp_values
are not provided, thenmedian_band_pct
is used instead. The inner band range will be the median value of y ±p_alpha[2]
of the relevant ALE statistic (usually ALE range or normalized ALE range). For plots with a second outer band, its range will be the median ±p_alpha[1]
. For example, in the ALE plots, for the defaultp_alpha = c(0.01, 0.05)
, the inner band will be the median ± ALE minimum or maximum at p = 0.05 and the outer band will be the median ± ALE minimum or maximum at p = 0.01.- x_intervals
positive integer length 1. Maximum number of intervals on the x-axis for the ALE data for each column in
x_cols
. The number of intervals that the algorithm generates might eventually be fewer than what the user specifies if the data values for a given x value do not support that many intervals.- boot_it
non-negative integer length 1. Number of bootstrap iterations for the ALE values. If
boot_it = 0
(default), then ALE will be calculated on the entire dataset with no bootstrapping.- seed
integer length 1. Random seed. Supply this between runs to assure that identical random ALE data is generated each time
- boot_alpha
numeric length 1 from 0 to 1. Alpha for percentile-based confidence interval range for the bootstrap intervals; the bootstrap confidence intervals will be the lowest and highest
(1 - 0.05) / 2
percentiles. For example, ifboot_alpha = 0.05
(default), the intervals will be from the 2.5 and 97.5 percentiles.- boot_centre
character length 1 in c('mean', 'median'). When bootstrapping, the main estimate for
ale_y
is considered to beboot_centre
. Regardless of the value specified here, both the mean and median will be available.- relative_y
character length 1 in c('median', 'mean', 'zero'). The ale_y values will be adjusted relative to this value. 'median' is the default. 'zero' will maintain the default of
ALEPlot::ALEPlot()
, which is not shifted.- y_type
character length 1. Datatype of the y (outcome) variable. Must be one of c('binary', 'numeric', 'multinomial', 'ordinal'). Normally determined automatically; only provide for complex non-standard models that require it.
- median_band_pct
numeric length 2 from 0 to 1. Alpha for "confidence interval" ranges for printing bands around the median for single-variable plots. These are the default values used if
p_values
are not provided. Ifp_values
are provided, thenmedian_band_pct
is ignored. The inner band range will be the median value of y ±median_band_pct[1]/2
. For plots with a second outer band, its range will be the median ±median_band_pct[2]/2
. For example, for the defaultmedian_band_pct = c(0.05, 0.5)
, the inner band will be the median ± 2.5% and the outer band will be the median ± 25%.- rug_sample_size, min_rug_per_interval
single non-negative integer length 1. Rug plots are normally down-sampled otherwise they are too slow.
rug_sample_size
specifies the size of this sample. To prevent down-sampling, set toInf
. To suppress rug plots, set to 0. When down-sampling, the rug plots maintain representativeness of the data by guaranteeing that each of thex_intervals
intervals will retain at leastmin_rug_per_interval
elements; usually set to just 1 or 2.- ale_xs, ale_ns
list of ale_x and ale_n vectors. If provided, these vectors will be used to set the intervals of the ALE x axis for each variable. By default (NULL), the function automatically calculates the ale_x intervals.
ale_xs
is normally used in advanced analyses where the ale_x intervals from a previous analysis are reused for subsequent analyses (for example, for full model bootstrapping; see themodel_bootstrap()
function).- compact_plots
logical length 1, default
FALSE
. Whenoutput
includes 'plots', the returnedggplot
objects each include the environments of the plots. This lets the user modify the plots with all the flexibility ofggplot
, but it can result in very large return objects (sometimes even hundreds of megabytes large). To compact the plots to their bare minimum, setcompact_plots = TRUE
. However, returned plots will not be easily modifiable, so this should only be used if you do not want to subsequently modify the plots.- silent
logical length 1, default
FALSE.
IfTRUE
, do not display any non-essential messages during execution (such as progress bars). Regardless, any warnings and errors will always display. See details for how to enable progress bars.
Value
list with the following elements:
data
: a list whose elements, named by each requested x variable, are each a tibble with the following columns:ale_x
: the values of each of the ALE x intervals or categories.ale_n
: the number of rows of data in eachale_x
interval or category.ale_y
: the ALE function value calculated for that interval or category. For bootstrapped ALE, this is the same asale_y_mean
by default orale_y_median
if theboot_centre = 'median'
argument is specified. Regardless, bothale_y_mean
andale_y_median
are returned as columns here.ale_y_lo
,ale_y_hi
: the lower and upper confidence intervals, respectively, for the bootstrappedale_y
value. Note: regardless what options are requested in theoutput
argument, thisdata
element is always returned.
stats
: ifstats
are requested in theoutput
argument (as is the default), returns a list. If not requested, returnsNULL
. The returned list provides ALE statistics of thedata
element duplicated and presented from various perspectives in the following elements:by_term
: a list named by each requested x variable, each of whose elements is a tibble with the following columns:statistic
: the ALE statistic specified in the row (see theby_statistic
element below).estimate
: the bootstrappedmean
ormedian
of thestatistic
, depending on theboot_centre
argument to theale()
function. Regardless, bothmean
andmedian
are returned as columns here.conf.low
,conf.high
: the lower and upper confidence intervals, respectively, for the bootstrappedestimate
.
by_statistic
: list named by each of the following ALE statistics:aled
,aler_min
,aler_max
,naled
,naler_min
,naler_max
. Seevignette('ale-statistics')
for details.estimate
: a tibble whose data consists of theestimate
values from theby_term
element above. The columns areterm
(the variable name) and the statistic for which the estimate is given:aled
,aler_min
,aler_max
,naled
,naler_min
,naler_max
.effects_plot
: aggplot
object which is the ALE effects plot for all the x variables.
plots
: ifplots
are requested in theoutput
argument (as is the default), returns a list whose elements, named by each requested x variable, are each aggplot
object of the ALE y values plotted against the x variable intervals. Ifplots
is not included inoutput
, this element isNULL
.conf_regions
: ifconf_regions
are requested in theoutput
argument (as is the default), returns a list. If not requested, returnsNULL
. The returned list provides summaries of the confidence regions of the relevant ALE statistics of thedata
element. The list has the following elements:by_term
: a list named by each requested x variable, each of whose elements is a tibble with the relevant data for the confidence regions. (Seevignette('ale-statistics')
for details about confidence regions.)significant
: a tibble that summarizes theby_term
to only show confidence regions that are statistically significant. Its columns are those fromby_term
plus aterm
column to specify which x variable is indicated by the respective row.sig_criterion
: a length-one character vector that reports which values were used to determine statistical significance: ifp_values
was provided to theale()
function, it will be used; otherwise,median_band_pct
will be used.
Various values echoed from the original call to the
ale()
function, provided to document the key elements used to calculate the ALE data, statistics, and plots:y_col
,x_cols
,boot_it
,seed
,boot_alpha
,boot_centre
,relative_y
,y_type
,median_band_pct
,rug_sample_size
. These are either the values provided by the user or used by default if the user did not change them.y_summary
: summary statistics of y values used for the ALE calculation. These statistics are based on the actual values ofy_col
unless ify_type
is a probability or other value that is constrained in the[0, 1]
range. In that case,y_summary
is based on the predicted values ofy_col
by applyingmodel
to thedata
.y_summary
is a named numeric vector. Most of the elements are the percentile of the y values. E.g., the '5%' element is the 5th percentile of y values. The following elements have special meanings:The first element is named either
p
orq
and its value is always 0. The value is not used; only the name of the element is meaningful.p
means that the following specialy_summary
elements are based on the providedp_values
object.q
means that quantiles were calculated based onmedian_band_pct
becausep_values
was not provided.min
,mean
,max
: the minimum, mean, and maximum y values, respectively. Note that the median is50%
, the 50th percentile.med_lo_2
,med_lo
,med_hi
,med_hi_2
:med_lo
andmed_hi
are the inner lower and upper confidence intervals of y values with respect to the median (50%
);med_lo_2
andmed_hi_2
are the outer confidence intervals. See the documentation for thep_alpha
andmedian_band_pct
arguments to understand how these are determined.
Custom predict function
The calculation of ALE requires modifying several values of the original
data
. Thus, ale()
needs direct access to a predict
function that work on
model
. By default, ale()
uses a generic default predict
function of the form
predict(object, newdata, type)
with the default prediction type of 'response'.
If, however, the desired prediction values are not generated with that format,
the user must specify what they want. Most of the time, the only modification needed is
to change the prediction type to some other value by setting the pred_type
argument
(e.g., to 'prob' to generated classification probabilities). But if the desired
predictions need a different function signature, then the user must create a
custom prediction function and pass it to pred_fun
. The requirements for this
custom function are:
It must take three required arguments and nothing else:
object
: a modelnewdata
: a dataframe or compatible table typetype
: a string; it should usually be specified astype = pred_type
These argument names are according to the R convention for the generic stats::predict function.
It must return a vector of numeric values as the prediction.
You can see an example below of a custom prediction function.
Note: survival
models probably do not need a custom prediction function
but y_col
must be set to the name of the binary event column and
pred_type
must be set to the desired prediction type.
ALE statistics
For details about the ALE-based statistics (ALED, ALER, NALED, and NALER), see
vignette('ale-statistics')
.
Parallel processing
Parallel processing using the {furrr}
library is enabled by default. By default,
it will use all the available physical
CPU cores (minus the core being used for the current R session) with the setting
parallel = parallel::detectCores(logical = FALSE) - 1
. Note that only
physical cores are used (not logical cores or "hyperthreading") because
machine learning can only take advantage of the floating point processors on
physical cores, which are absent from logical cores. Trying to use logical
cores will not speed up processing and might actually slow it down with useless
data transfer. If you will dedicate
the entire computer to running this function (and you don't mind everything
else becoming very slow while it runs), you may use all cores by setting
parallel = parallel::detectCores(logical = FALSE)
. To disable parallel
processing, set parallel = 0
.
Progress bars
Progress bars are implemented with the {progressr}
package, which lets
the user fully control progress bars. To disable progress bars, set silent = TRUE
.
The first time a function is called in
the {ale}
package that requires progress bars, it checks if the user has
activated the necessary {progressr}
settings. If not, the {ale}
package
automatically enables {progressr}
progress bars with the cli
handler and
prints a message notifying the user.
If you like the default progress bars and you want to make them permanent, then you can add the following lines of code to your .Rprofile configuration file and they will become your defaults for every R session; you will not see the message again:
For more details on formatting progress bars to your liking, see the introduction
to the {progressr}
package.
References
Okoli, Chitu. 2023. “Statistical Inference Using Machine Learning and Classical Techniques Based on Accumulated Local Effects (ALE).” arXiv. https://arxiv.org/abs/2310.09877.
Examples
set.seed(0)
diamonds_sample <- ggplot2::diamonds[sample(nrow(ggplot2::diamonds), 1000), ]
# Create a GAM model with flexible curves to predict diamond price
# Smooth all numeric variables and include all other variables
gam_diamonds <- mgcv::gam(
price ~ s(carat) + s(depth) + s(table) + s(x) + s(y) + s(z) +
cut + color + clarity,
data = diamonds_sample
)
summary(gam_diamonds)
#>
#> Family: gaussian
#> Link function: identity
#>
#> Formula:
#> price ~ s(carat) + s(depth) + s(table) + s(x) + s(y) + s(z) +
#> cut + color + clarity
#>
#> Parametric coefficients:
#> Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)
#> (Intercept) 3421.412 74.903 45.678 < 2e-16 ***
#> cut.L 261.339 171.630 1.523 0.128170
#> cut.Q 53.684 129.990 0.413 0.679710
#> cut.C -71.942 103.804 -0.693 0.488447
#> cut^4 -8.657 80.614 -0.107 0.914506
#> color.L -1778.903 113.669 -15.650 < 2e-16 ***
#> color.Q -482.225 104.675 -4.607 4.64e-06 ***
#> color.C 58.724 95.983 0.612 0.540807
#> color^4 125.640 87.111 1.442 0.149548
#> color^5 -241.194 81.913 -2.945 0.003314 **
#> color^6 -49.305 74.435 -0.662 0.507883
#> clarity.L 4141.841 226.713 18.269 < 2e-16 ***
#> clarity.Q -2367.820 217.185 -10.902 < 2e-16 ***
#> clarity.C 1026.214 180.295 5.692 1.67e-08 ***
#> clarity^4 -602.066 137.258 -4.386 1.28e-05 ***
#> clarity^5 408.336 105.344 3.876 0.000113 ***
#> clarity^6 -82.379 88.434 -0.932 0.351815
#> clarity^7 4.017 78.816 0.051 0.959362
#> ---
#> Signif. codes: 0 ‘***’ 0.001 ‘**’ 0.01 ‘*’ 0.05 ‘.’ 0.1 ‘ ’ 1
#>
#> Approximate significance of smooth terms:
#> edf Ref.df F p-value
#> s(carat) 7.503 8.536 4.114 3.65e-05 ***
#> s(depth) 1.486 1.874 0.601 0.614753
#> s(table) 2.929 3.738 1.294 0.240011
#> s(x) 8.897 8.967 3.323 0.000542 ***
#> s(y) 3.875 5.118 11.075 < 2e-16 ***
#> s(z) 9.000 9.000 2.648 0.004938 **
#> ---
#> Signif. codes: 0 ‘***’ 0.001 ‘**’ 0.01 ‘*’ 0.05 ‘.’ 0.1 ‘ ’ 1
#>
#> R-sq.(adj) = 0.94 Deviance explained = 94.3%
#> GCV = 9.7669e+05 Scale est. = 9.262e+05 n = 1000
# \donttest{
# Simple ALE without bootstrapping
ale_gam_diamonds <- ale(
diamonds_sample, gam_diamonds,
parallel = 2 # CRAN limit (delete this line on your own computer)
)
# Plot the ALE data
ale_gam_diamonds$plots |>
patchwork::wrap_plots()
# Bootstrapped ALE
# This can be slow, since bootstrapping runs the algorithm boot_it times
# Create ALE with 100 bootstrap samples
ale_gam_diamonds_boot <- ale(
diamonds_sample, gam_diamonds, boot_it = 100,
parallel = 2 # CRAN limit (delete this line on your own computer)
)
# Bootstrapped ALEs print with confidence intervals
ale_gam_diamonds_boot$plots |>
patchwork::wrap_plots()
# If the predict function you want is non-standard, you may define a
# custom predict function. It must return a single numeric vector.
custom_predict <- function(object, newdata, type = pred_type) {
predict(object, newdata, type = type, se.fit = TRUE)$fit
}
ale_gam_diamonds_custom <- ale(
diamonds_sample, gam_diamonds,
pred_fun = custom_predict, pred_type = 'link',
parallel = 2 # CRAN limit (delete this line on your own computer)
)
# Plot the ALE data
ale_gam_diamonds_custom$plots |>
patchwork::wrap_plots()
# }